The assassination initiated the July Crisis, a month of diplomatic manoeuvring among Austria-Hungary, Germany (have a peek here), Russia, France and Britain. However, the Foreign Ministry had no solid proof of Serbian involvement. Serbia ordered general mobilisation on 25 July, but accepted all the terms, except for those empowering Austrian representatives to suppress “subversive elements” inside Serbia, and take part in the investigation and trial of Serbians linked to the assassination. Believing that Serbian intelligence helped organise Franz Ferdinand’s murder, Austrian officials wanted to use the opportunity to end Serbian interference in Bosnia and saw war as the best way of achieving this. On 23 July, Austria delivered an ultimatum to Serbia, listing ten demands made intentionally unacceptable to provide an excuse for starting hostilities.

However, the Petrograd Soviet refused to disband, creating competing power centres and causing confusion and chaos, with frontline soldiers becoming increasingly demoralised. Following the tsar’s abdication, Vladimir Lenin-with the help of the German government-was ushered from Switzerland into Russia on 16 April 1917. Discontent and the weaknesses of the Provisional Government led to a rise in the popularity of the Bolshevik Party, led by Lenin, which demanded an immediate end to the war.

Concurrent British attacks at Arras were more successful, though ultimately of little strategic value. Operating as a separate unit for the first time, the Canadian Corps’ capture of Vimy Ridge is viewed by many Canadians as a defining moment in creating a sense of national identity. Though Nivelle continued the offensive, on 3 May the 21st Division, which had been involved in some of the heaviest fighting at Verdun, refused orders to go into battle, initiating the French Army mutinies; within days, “collective indiscipline” had spread to 54 divisions, while over 20,000 deserted.

Irish nationalists and Marxists attempted to pursue Irish independence, culminating in the Easter Rising of 1916, with Germany sending 20,000 rifles to Ireland to stir unrest in Britain. The British government placed Ireland under martial law in response to the Easter Rising, though once the immediate threat of revolution had dissipated, the authorities did try to make concessions to nationalist feeling. Some of them, most notably prominent peace activist Stephen Hobhouse, refused both military and alternative service. Other opposition came from conscientious objectors-some socialist, some religious-who had refused to fight. In Britain, 16,000 people asked for conscientious objector status.