This included the liberation of Italians, Slavs, Romanians, Czecho-Slovaks, and the creation of a “free and united Poland”. The negotiations failed and the Entente powers rejected the German offer on the grounds of honour, and noted Germany had not put forward any specific proposals. By the end of 1916, Russian casualties totalled nearly five million killed, wounded or captured, with major urban areas affected by food shortages and high prices. In March 1917, Tsar Nicholas ordered the military to forcibly suppress a wave of strikes in Petrograd but the troops refused to fire on the crowds. The Allies sought guarantees that would prevent or limit future wars, complete with sanctions, as a condition of any peace settlement.

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Official Statements of War Aims. Axelrod, Alan (2018). How America Won World War I. Rowman & Littlefield. David, Evans (1918). “John McCrae”. Neiberg, Michael (2007). The World War I Reader. Jones, Heather (2013). “As the centenary approaches: the regeneration of First World War historiography”. Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Ayers, Leonard Porter (1919). The War with Germany: A Statistical Summary. Nature. 100 (2521): 487-488. Bibcode:1918Natur.100..487.. Christoph Cornelissen, and Arndt Weinrich, eds. Department of Veterans’ Affairs. Writing the Great War – The Historiography of World War I from 1918 to the Present (2020) free download Archived 29 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine; full coverage for major countries. Peace Proposals: December 1916 to November 1918. Washington, D.C., The Endowment.

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Japan declared war on Germany before seizing territories in the Pacific, which later became the South Seas Mandate, as well as German Treaty ports on the Chinese Shandong peninsula at Tsingtao. Some of the first clashes of the war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in Africa. Within a few months, Allied forces had seized all German territories in the Pacific, leaving only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea.

May/June 1916 was the only full-scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest in history. After the sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond the protection of the “cruiser rules”, which demanded warning and movement of crews to “a place of safety” (a standard that lifeboats did not meet). The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival. The United States launched a protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. German U-boat attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain. The clash was indecisive, though the Germans inflicted more damage than they received, since thereafter the bulk of the German High Seas Fleet was confined to port.

Havighurst, Alfred F. (1985). Britain in transition: the twentieth century (4th ed.). Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. New York: Marshall Cavendish. Hinterhoff, Eugene (1984). “The Campaign in Armenia”. Herwig, Holger (1988). “The Failure of German Sea Power, 1914-1945: Mahan, Tirpitz, and Raeder Reconsidered”. University of Chicago Press. In Young, Peter (ed.). The International History Review. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I. Vol. Heyman, Neil M. (1997). World War I. Guides to historic events of the twentieth century.